The worship of Liṅga as Śiva according to most scholars, especially from the west arises from the worship of phallus. There are many ancient sculptures that represent this form, as in the case of Gudinallam Liṅga, and literary references, that justify this assumption. This view cannot be held wrong. But it seems that to describe all Liṅga worship as worship of the phallus is patently wrong.The ritual treatises categorize different classes of Liṅgas as for example, svayambhu Liṅga, (self manifest Liṅga), daivika Liṅga (established by celestials), ārṣa Liṅgas (established by Ṛṣis) and mānuṣa Liṅgas (man-made Liṅgas). Each is conditioned by its own legend and faith, and their consecratory rites also vary. Any self-manifest Liṅga (svayambu) may be in any shape, even simply as a plain, and that it does not represent the phallus. Similar is the case in respect of deivika Liṅga (celestial Liṅga) and ārṣa Liṅgas, (Ṛṣi Liṅga) quite a good number of existing Liṅgas are said to belong to these categories.Regarding mānuṣa Liṅgas - man-made Liṅgas, there are various categories depending upon the material with which they are made and the purpose for which they are made, One variety of Liṅga is called kṣaṇika Liṅga (short-lived Liṅgas) which are made for worship for short duration. A person who is on long journey can, instead of carrying a Liṅga, make a Liṅga for the day's worship with available material like sand, sandal paste, vibhūti (sacred ash), cooked rice (annam) and even simple flowers that are made into small heaps and worshipped as Śiva Liṅga. In these cases the heaped up form is called kṣanika-Liṅga, candana-Liṅga, vibhūti-Liṅga, anna-Liṅga or pushpa-Liṅga. In all these instances the Liṅga does not represent phallus is quite evident.Among the other Liṅgas, which form the majority under worship, stone Liṅgas predominate. There are atleast 96 different types of Liṅgas mentioned in Makuṭāgama, depending upon the proportion, shape of the head and the shape of the pīṭha which is also called Liṅga-vedi. It is known that by and large the Liṅgas consisting of the central shaft and its piṭha are made separately and fitted together during sthāpana-installation though in some cases both are found carved as one unit. In majority of the cases the central shaft consists of three parts; the bottom is square, the middle octagonal and the top cylindrical. It is known that bottom square part represents Brahmā-bhāga - the middle for Viṣṇu-bhāga and the top cylindrical part represents Rudra-bhāga. The priest, who worships the Liṅga, invokes Brahma in the square part, Viṣṇu in the octagonal part and Rudra in the cylindrical part. Invariably such Liṅgas stand for the Trinity namely Brahma, Viṣṇu and Śiva and therefore do not represent the phallus. Mention has been made earlier that ever 96 types of Liṅgas are listed each depending on the proportions and their top. Each of these Liṅga is based on different ideology and believed to confer different benefits to the devotees. Such Liṅgas cannot be considered phallus.Liṅga types from ĀgamasThere is a chapter on definition or rather characteristics of Liṅgas in the text Kāmika āgama - First Part, 62 chapters. It says Liṅgas could be made of clay, wood, metal or stone. Some are found in gems or as Bāṇa Liṅgas. The Liṅgas made of clay fall into two categories as Liṅga of unburned clay or burnt clay (terracotta Liṅgas). The terracotta Liṅgas are intended for abhicāra worship i.e., destruction of enemies. The text proceeds to enumerate, the materials, the sources from where these could be obtained, the type of wood that could be used, the nature of stone suitable for Liṅga, and the different proportions for Brahma bhāga, Viṣṇu bhāga and Rudra bhāga.The chapter also deals with mukha Liṅgas, which are meant for bestowing enjoyment (bhukti) or salvation (mukti). Mukha Liṅgas are classified as Eka-mukha-Liṅga, Trimukha Liṅgas and Caturmukha Liṅgas.The text also speaks of types of Liṅgas called Puṇḍarika, Viśāla, Śrīvatsa, and Śatrumardana Liṅgas. Worshipping Puṇḍarika Liṅga bestows fame, Viśāla bestows great wealth, Śrīvatsa gives all prosperity and Victory is obtained by Śatrumardana V. 52-55 There are two district types of Liṅgas which are mentioned by names as ĀdyaLiṅgam, and Vardhamāndea Liṅgam based on the proportions of the Brahma bhāga, Viṣṇu bhāga and Śiva bhāga. The Ādhya Liṅga will have all the three parts of equal height is considered a special category. When the top Śiva bhāga is made taller and the other two parts, are made of equal height, it is called Vardha-mānaka Liṅga.There are many Liṅgas under worship decidedly from the 7th cent Pallava age in Tamilnadu that show the Cylindrical part of the Liṅga with the central rekha shown as a single line culminating in a figure drawn like a pointed flame. They indicate the intention of the makers was to adore them as jyotis , the jyotir-Liṅgas. Such representations could be seen in Mahābalipuram. A number of Liṅgas from different parts of the country are shown here that illustrate the point.It is necessary to state, it is not only Śiva who is represented in Liṅga and worshipped, and there are other manifestations of godhood that are worshipped, in the Liṅga. In some of the Āgamas, there are references to installation of Liṅgas representing devotees. Several hundred illustrations are known where a dead devotee is personified in the Liṅga and worshipped. According to Śaiva philosophy, the devotee merges with the Supreme Śiva (Śiva sāyujya) when he passes away. The Śiva-jñāna-bodha, a text of great authority in Tamilnadu, states that the devotee merges with Śiva in the final stage - śivena aikyam gataḥ in Sanskrit and avanē tāne āki in Tamil.There are several instances in Chola times, when a Liṅga is installed where the king died and a temple created for him and such temples are called “Paḷḷip paḍai temples”. The kings were cremated and obviously their ashes were interned and Liṅga created over the internment. When Āditya chola died (early 10th cent), at Toṇḍaimānad near Kālahasti (north of Madras), a Pallip-paḍai temple was created over his remains and Liṅga installed, and worship arranged. The temple still stands. A Pallip-paḍai temple was created by Rājarāja chola, over the remains of Ariñjaya chola, at Melpadi near Vellore in Tamilnad where the temple stands to this day. Several such Paḷḷip-paḍai temples could be cited during the Chola period 9th to 12th cent.The consecration of Liṅgas and creation of such Paḷḷip-paḍai temples were not confined to only male members. Liṅgas were installed for female devotees as well. Chola records refer to construction of such temples for Chola queens. Some such temples continue to exist till date near Kumbakonam.No distinction is made between kings and other devotees. Irrespective of their social status, Liṅgas were erected over the remains of any Śaiva devotee, a tradition that survives to this day. Evidently such Liṅgas can not be termed phallus.There are also Liṅgas that represent not a single deity but dual deities. A Śiva-Liṅga in Cambodia, is mentioned as Viṣṇu-Caṇḍēśa Liṅgam - that is the combined form of Śiva and Viṣṇu. The invocatory verse of this inscription makes specific mention of the combined form of Viṣṇu and Śiva as Hara-Achyutau. This is not an isolated instance. Another Liṅga, also from Cambodia is called Śiva-Viṣṇu Liṅga. Thus the dual forms of Śiva and Viṣṇu were invoked in the Liṅga and such Liṅgas can not be brought under phallus worship.It is well known that Liṅgas with faces were worshipped in all parts of the Hindu world. These fall under different types like Eka-mukha Liṅgas, Catur-muka-Liṅgas, or even Pañca-mukha-Liṅgas. The Catur-mukha or Pañca-mukha Liṅgas are based on the concept of five forms of Śiva, called Pañca-Brahman, known as Tatpuruṣa, Aghora, Sadyojāta, Vāmadeva and Īśāna. The last mentioned may be or may not be represented in form, but in both the cases the presence of Īśāna is invoked on top of the Liṅga such Liṅgas can not also be considered as phallus.Instead of four faces, one may find the full standing figure of Śiva on four sides and the top will have only the cylindrical shaft. Here again to call these types of Liṅgas as phallus is not correct.Similar to the above, we have another type of Liṅga which are called Pañcāyatana Liṅgas; they carry Brahma, Viṣṇu, Gaṇeśa, and Sūrya on the four faces, the top portion with no form. Alternately Brahma, Viṣṇu, Gaṇeśa, and Devi Pārvatī are also found in some instances. Such Pañcāyatana Liṅgas, have the top cylindrical part, which are left plain, represent the Īśāna form of Śiva and they are not representation of the phallus. The Liṅga in all these cases represents multiple deities. An interesting form of Liṅga is mentioned in Cambodia in which the four faces found are Brahm, Viṣhṇu, Śiva and Buddha. Thus even Buddha could be worshipped in a Liṅga.Mention has been made earlier that Liṅga could represent dual deities like Viṣṇu and Śiva, We have some interesting Liṅgas mentioned in the Purāṇas like the Vāmana purāṇa (Ad. 46). Describing the (Kurukṣetra) saro māhātmya, the purāṇa states that there was a great Liṅga beneath a banyan tree by the side of which stood Pārvatī in the form of Liṅga. The Purāṇa says goddess Pārvatī in Liṅga form was always present by the side of the great Liṅga, which means that there were two Liṅgas one representing Śiva and the other representing Pārvatī by its side.There was a sacred tank near that place, called Rudrākāra acting as Śarva tīrtha, abode of all sacred waters. To the north of this tank Rāvaṇa (who is called Mahātmā) installed a great Liṅga — MahāLiṅga which was called Gokarṇa. Meghanātha – Indrajit, the son of Rāvaṇa installed a Liṅga called Siddida Liṅga. Kumbhakarṇa installed another Liṅga to the west of it. In the presence of this Gokarṇa Liṅga of Devadeva, Umā resides in the form of a Liṅga.āsīt yat sannidhau Liṅgam deva devasya sūlinahumā sā Liṅga rūpena hara pārśvam na muñcatiThis illustrates clearly Umā could also be worshipped in the form a Liṅga.LingodbhavaAt this stage we may mention the concept of Liṅgodbhava form of Śiva. According to the Liṅga purāṇa, there arose once a quarrel between Brahma and Viṣṇu as to who among them was great. At that time a huge shaft of resplendent flame arose in between them with a thunderous sound “Om”. Startled by this appearance Brahma in the form of a swan tried to see the head of this shaft but failed. Viṣṇu appeared as a boar and went down and even after reaching the nether world, could not see its root and returned. Then from the middle of the shaft issued Śiva, who told both of them that they were quarrelling due to vanity. Brahma, Viṣṇu and Śiva are identical and there is no difference between them. According to the Liṅga-purāṇa the worship of Liṅga was established in the world from that time and this manifestation is called Liṅgodbhava - emanation from Liṅga. This representation is portrayed sculpturally in hundreds from very early times in Tamilnad where the Liṅga is shown as a flame of pillar. The concept of Liṅga in all these cases arise from jyōti - effulgent light and hence Liṅga is generally identified as jyōtir-Liṅga.It is necessary to understand that the effulgent light is a symbol of bright knowledge that removes darkness of ignorance. Brahma and Viṣṇnu were fighting among themselves because they were overtaken by their egoism, which shrouded their wisdom. The illuminating shaft of flame reminded their knowledge consciousness as a result of which they were able to realize their self.This story of Śiva emanating from the shaft of flame as Liṅgodbhava is according to scholars, an extension of the story found in the Kena upaniṣhad in which all the gods like Indra, Varuṇa, Vāyu, and Agni were quarrelling among themselves when a small piece of grass was found in front of them. When Agni, Vāyu and Varuṇa, one after the other boasted that they could destroy that grass in a trice, none could even shake it from its place. When Indra went near, a divine being revealed itself as a blazing flame that none could fathom. From it emerged, Umā-Haimavati, who revealed to Indira that she was Ātma-vidyā - knowledge of self. This famous Kena upaniṣhad, showed Umā Haimavati was the embodiment of knowledge appearing as a shaft of flame.These two legends illustrate that both Śiva and Umā appeared as Liṅga, representing knowledge. The appearance of Umā as a Liṅga at Kurukṣhetra is to be understood against this back ground.The Vāmana purāṇa mentions another interesting Liṅga. At Kurukṣhetra, Viśvakarmā established a Liṅga to the east of the Vaṭa vṛkṣa (banyan tree) there stood Goddess Sarasvati in the form of a Liṅga facing west.vaṭasya pūrvadik bhāge viśvakarmeṇa kritam mahat .Liṅgam pratyak mukham drṣhṭvā siddhim āpnōti mānavaḥ ..tatraiva Liṅga rupēna sthitā devī sarasvatī .praṇamya tām prayatnena buddhim medhāṁ ca vindatiVāmana Ad. 46Here again one notices goddess Sarasvatī, in the form of Liṅga, worship of which bestows knowledge and intellect. Liṅga is here associated with knowledge in the form of Supreme jyoti, light.The 26th chapters of the Kūrma purāṇa is important in this connection. It speaks of Kṛṣṇa getting initiated in Pāśupata system, to do penance and worship of Śiva, for obtaining a son. He went to the āśrama of sage upamanya which was full of yogis and different kinds of birds animals, trees flowers and creepers. The āśrama had a number of tanks with pure water. There were also ārāmas and temples dedicated to gods. There were ṛṣis and munigaṇas, whoever reciting vedas, and performing agnihotras There were worshippers of Śiva as Pāśupatas who smeered their bodies with sacred ashes, and reciting Śrī Rudra (hymn). Some of them had their head shaved which others had matted locks (jaṭas). Some had their tufts tied in different ways. Viṣṇu with four arms, weilding Saṅkha chakra, and Gada, and riding on Garuḍa arrived at the Āśram. This Āśrama was known as Siddhāśrama. Mādhava worshipped them duly. The sages, who are called as Brahma-vādins, were surprised to see Lord Nārāyaṇa himself amidst their, spoke among themselves that how the lord, who is the supreme puruṣottama, who himself is the creator, protector, and destroyer and formless god who is also the god in form, comes here to this Āśrama. Viṣṇu quietly went to the riverside performed ablations to gods, Ṛṣis, and ancestors, and worshipped the Liṅgas installed by many saints on the river banks. Then he reached the Āśhrama of sage Upamanya, the surprised Upamanya asked Kṛṣṇa. “You are the supreme soul of this entire universe. The great yogins of the world tired to reach you though penance. What brought such a great soul here?” With a smile on his face, Kṛṣṇa replied “I have come here to see Lord Śiva, the Umāpati. Tell sage how I could behold him, in a short time.” Sage Upamanyu told Kṛṣṇa that one could see Umāpati in his Āśhrama, by devotion and penance as has been obtained by several great men earlier. Upamanyu narrated a such achievement of some great men. The following are the sages who attained such vision.Sage Vasiṣṭha received Maheśvara yoga here and obtaining Īśvara by performing seven penance. Sage Vyāsa did penance in that Āśrama and obtained sons, worshipping Śiva and Umādevī here, many achieved fearless state. Savarni worshipped Mahādeva and obtained yoga and became a great author and compiled this Purāṇa. It consists of 16,000 verses and was known as Dvi-aṣṭa-sahaśraka-samhita and the latter Vāyaviya Samhita. The disciples of Vaisampāyana established this here the great mahayoga, Yājñavalkya having propitiated Śiva by penance composed the unparalleled text on yogaśāstra so you must do worship of Śiva in this Āśrama and obtain whatever is your prayer and also behold Īśvara.Having narrated this history of the Āśrama, Upamanyu taught Kṛṣṇa Pāśupata yoga vrata. Kṛṣṇa started worshipping Śiva in that Āśrama he shaved his head, smeared his body with sacred ashes, and wore bark garments, and meditated on Śiva. Śiva appeared with his consort before Kṛṣṇa with kirīṭa, gada, citramāla, pinaki bow, śūla, clad with tigers skin and with devī.kirīṭinam gadinam citramālāmpinākinam śūlinam devadevamsārdula carmāmbara sammvṛtayamdevyā mahādevam asau dadarśaprabhum purāṇam puruṣam purastatsanātanam yoginam īśītāramaṇoraṇīy aruṣam ananta śaktimprāṇeśvaram śambhum asau dadarśaparasvadhāsakta karam trinetramnṛsimha bhasmāvṛta carma gātramsamud girantam praṇavam bṛhantamsahasra sūrya pratimam dadarśatadanva paśyat girīsasam sva vāmesvatīrṇam avyaktam ananta rūpamstuvantam īśam bahubhir vācobhihśaṅkhāsi cakrānvita hastam ādyamkṛtāñjalim dakṣinataḥ sureśamhamsādirūḍham puruṣam dadarśasithāruṇam īśasya param prabhāvampitāmaham loka gurum divisthamgaṇeśvarādīn arka sahasra kalpānnandiśvarādīn amita prabhāvāntriloka bhartuḥ purataḥ anvapaśyatkumāram agni pratimam apaśyatThis description of Śiva, seen by Viṣṇu captures graphically a rare iconographic form of Śiva. Śiva is said to wear partially the attributes of Viṣṇu like Kirīṭa, wearing beautiful jewels (chitra-māla) and gada. He also held his low pināka and triśūla and was clad in tigers skin and also silken garment. He also carried paraśu and had sacred ash smeared oven his body that was also covered with the man lion skin. He was sounding the great pranava - Omkara and was shining like thousand Suns - Viṣṇu also saw on the left of Śiva his own self holding śankha, cakra and sword in his hands.It looks the description portrays Hari-Hara suarupa to the right of Śiva stood Indra and Brahma or swan. Also stood in front Nandīśvara and Ganeśvaras, there also stood Kumāra resembling Agni (as he is Āgneya) and Ganeśa.Viṣṇu seeing this great from of Śiva, started praising with “great prayers as thou art Brahma, Viṣṇu, Rudra, creator and destroyer of this universe! The learned call you Ṛṣi, thou stayeth in the orbit of Sun (dinakara maṇḍala ahivaraḥ). Sānkhyas worship thee as Āgama (devoid of qualities) and adore thee residing in the yoga of this heart Vedas adore thee as Rudra.” A few other names with which Śiva is addressed also deserve notice here.Nīlakaṇṭha, Mahādeva, Muṇḍa and Daṇḍin (shaven head, and wilder of daṇḍa) holder of Vajra, Bhairavanāda, Vanhiretas, Ambikāpati, Vyoma rūpa, Naranāri śarīa, Sānkhya yoga Pravartaka (given of Sānkhya system) Devanu gata liṅgin, Kumaraguru, Yajñādhipati, Mṛgavyādha, Hamsa, Yogin, Prāṇapāla, Jyotiṣāmpati etc.,When Śiva heard all these praises, he held Kṛṣṇa in his hand, and said “Kṛṣṇa you are the supreme, you are the giver of all desires, nothing in this world exist without you; you are Ananta, Nārāyaṇa, you are Parameśvara, Mahādeva, you are my own part as Nārāyaṇa and you are Mahāyogi. What is that I can offer you?” Devi said - “look you are myself than is no difference between you and me. You receive all that you want from yourself that is me? You receive Īśvaraprāṇa, Īśvara-bhakti and (Sawagnature).”The story goes on Kṛṣṇa was moving around this Āśrama worshipping Śiva. Garuḍa from Dvarāvati came and requested Kṛṣṇa to return to Dvarāvati. Kṛṣṇa returned and started worshipping Śiva in Liṅga there also the residents of Dvarāvati were surprised and why he the supreme is worshipping a Liṅga with a smile on his face Kṛṣṇa told them. “I have nothing else to obtain and yet I worship siva in Liṅga a few people out of delusion do not understand the root of their own self and in order to remind them my root I worship Śiva. There is nothing but Liṅga worship that would bestow spiritual merit. For the goodness of the world I am worshipping Liṅga. The vedic seers call me that Liṅga. I that Liṅga worship my ownself. His is the supreme self and I am that there is no difference between us the Vedas declare the same.”This passage shows the inseperable unity of Śiva and Viṣṇu in Liṅga.
The tradition of representing Cakradāna Mūrti Śiva is will known especially in Tamilnadu. In the portrayal of this scene, the emphasis is given in many instances to the presentation of Cakra to Viṣṇu by Śiva. In all these instances, the main figure in Śiva shown seated with Pārvatī, presenting the Cakra to Viṣṇu who will be shown receiving the weapon. Such representations are seen from the Pallava times as in the Kailāsanāthan temple of Kāñchīpuram. But there are illustrations where the emphasis is given to the worship of Liṅga by Viṣṇu and in such cases Śiva is shown emerging from Liṅga, portrayed standing and Viṣṇu also standing receives the weapon. A good illustration of this theme is found in the Great temple of Tanjore, where the Liṅga is shown prominently. It almost resembles the Lingodbhava image, but unlike Lingodbhava, in which Śiva is shown only upto the knee in his lower body, Śiva in Cakradānamūrti, he is shown emerging from Liṅga in full. The most important point is the Liṅga from which Śiva emanates is given importance and it has no resemblance to the phallus (illustration).Thus both in the Lingodbhava form and Viṣṇu-anugraha form, the Liṅga that is represented has no resemblance to Phallus.Kāmākṣi worshipping Liṅga.There is another representation is sculpture in which goddess Kāmākṣi (Pārvati) is said to worship. According to the legends the Goddess, in order obtain a boon from Śiva, worshipped him in the form of Liṅga.An excellent illustration of Pārvatī worshipping Liṅga is now in the Dhaka museum of the Pāla period 10th-11th cent. This shows Liṅga prominently in the front while the goddess is shown standing behind the Liṅga adoring him. It may be seen from the sculpture that the Liṅga portrayed is of the common variety, with no resemblance to the Phallus. According to the legend, the goddess performed the worship according to the Āgamic tradition and the Liṅga represented should be taken to stand for the common Liṅga of the Āgama. We may also point out, that in Pāla sculptures, belonging to Bengal region, one finds sculptures of Śiva, some representing ūrdhva retas and some without it, indicating and in the same period two different concepts are seen and so all Liṅgas, an not be brought under phallus type Liṅga.In South India, the Goddess is said to have come to Kāñchīpuram to do worship of Liṅga. She did the worship on the banks of the river Vegavati, where she heaped up the river sand on the banks and worshipped it, when suddenly floods brought waves of waters. The Goddess embraced it to prevent the Liṅga of sand being washed away. Śiva bestowed grace on her. This theme mentioned in 12th cent Tamil work, is seen in many Chōḻa temples of even earlier times. The Liṅga worshipped by the Goddess is a repeated theme and this has nothing today with phallus.Similarly in the story of Candeśa, the saint worshipped a Liṅga made of sand and Liṅgas had nothing to do with phallus.We may also point out the famous concepts of Pañca-bhūta-Liṅgas i.e., the Liṅgas made of five basic elements namely Pṛthvī Liṅga, Jala Liṅga, Vayu Liṅga, Tejo Liṅga (Agni), and Ākaśa Liṅga. The Pṛthvī Liṅgas are generally considered the ant hills ; the Jala Liṅga is waters in which the water itself is worshipped as Śiva. Similarly in fire, and Air and Ākaśa Liṅgas, the concept is they represent Śiva and not the phallus.In interpreting idols and images made for worship, a historian has to point out how the makers of the sculptures or images visualized them and used them and can not impose their own views. In none of the Āgamic texts which carry detailed process of invocation and daily worship and in none of them we find the concept of phallus.I have mentioned earlier that there is no doubt that some Liṅgas are shaped like the human phallus and also literature in support of the identification. It may be in the range of one in ten-thousand. But to call all the Liṅgas as representing phallus is too pedestrian an approach, lacking even a basic knowledge of the concept of Hindu Worship.When the fire is kindled in the altar it emerges as heat energy, called Rudra. When that energy raises to a higher degree, it emits light, which spreads and is called Viṣṇu who also protects living as benign heat. The protective power of Viṣṇu is symbolized by the Cakra in his hand. This figuritively called Viṣṇu receiving his power from Agni-Rudra, which is the origin of Viṣṇu-anugraha-mūrti.
