The Tamil text Maṇimēkalai is essentially a Buddhist work, but it reflects a Vedic society with a sprinkling of other sects like the Jains, Ājivikas and others. It is against this background Cāttanār, the author, paints the picture of Buddhist ideologies and ends the story emphasising the superiority of the Buddhist faith over the others. Although at the very end of the work, the author portrays various philosophical systems like Jains, Ājivikas, and Śaivavādins, it is the Vaidika brāhmaṇas the author singles out to ridicule in the main run of the story. In particular there are two notable instances of Brāhmaṇa women portrayed as immoral. These are the instances of Cūṭāmati and the mother of Āputtiran. Obviously Brāhmaṇas commanded respect in society and by casting aspersions on their conduct the author choses to lower that respect for Brāhmaṇas as a preliminary step towards propagating Buddhism.
The Vaidika system found in the text can be studied under different headings. At the outset it must be said that the Vaidika conduct is not only reflected in the life of the Brāhmaṇas but also in the life of other sections of the society like the Kṣatriyas, Vaiśyas, dancers and others.
The Vedas are mentioned using various terms like Nānmarai1, Mutumarai2, Māmarai3, Āraṇam4, Antanar Naṉṉul5, Arumarai6, Vētam7 and ottu8. Brahma is said to have handed down the Vedas.9
Among the different terms used to denote the brāhmaṇas, antaṇaṉ, and pārppān10 occur frequently. In fact the word antaṇaṉ is used exclusively to denote a Brahmana in this text.11 The Vedic brāhmaṇa is referred to as arumarai antaṇaṉ, i.e., the brāhmaṇa of the sacred Vedas; marai ōmpalāṉ,12 i.e., one who preserves the Vedas: ōttuṭai antaṇaṉ,13 one who recites the Vedas, and ōtal antaṇaṉ, 14 i.e., one given to recitation. The Vedas were consciously preserved by the Brāhmaṉa and they were also studied by the other two castes, the Kṣatriyas and the Vaiśyas. The Brāhmaṇas headed the three varṇas in studying the Vedas, and were the foremost among the Vaidikas. This is reflected in the term māmarai mutalvaṉ.15 The Brāhmaṇas were also called as iru pirappāḷaṉ.16
Another significant term used in the Maṇimēkalai to denote a Brāhmaṇa is indicate Prākṛt or Sanskrit. The Maṇimēkalai mainly reflects the pan Indian society as it vaṭamoḻiyāḷan, i.e., one who employes the Northern language. The term vaṭamoḻi may refers to people from Kocampi (Kosambi), Uñcai (Ujjayini), Varanaci (Vārānasi), and other places.17
It seems that the term vaṭamoḻi is employed not in the sense of the Prākṛt language, but of Sanskrit. It is interesting to note that not only were the Brāhmaṇa males called vaṭamoḻiyāḷaṉ, but that the Brāhmaṇa women were also called vaṭamoḻiyāṭṭi. This probably indicates that the Brāhmaṇa women, spoke Sanskrit in their domestic life. The Brāhmaṇa women were called māmaraiyāṭṭi. It is not known, whether they studied the Vedas or whether they were referred to by this term in a general way.
Brāhmaṇa boys were initiated into the Vedic studies by wearing a sacred thread, muṉṉul. All literature appropriate for a Brāhmaṇa boy was taught. He learnt the Vedas after upanayana and learnt them perfectly. This included perfect pronounciation and intonation; something that is mentioned in the Āputiran episode. The rite of wearing sacred thread was performed in the presence of all relatives.
The Brāhmaṇas were identified by the respective rṣigaṇas. Acala, Cirunki, Viriñci and Kecakampalan are some of the rṣgaṇas identified in the text.18Vasiṣṭa and Agastya, the foremost amongst the Brāhmaṇa, were said to have been the sons of Devagaṇikas.
There were different functions for the Brāhmaṇa of which one such function was to teach the Vedas. In teaching the Vedas, one has to recite the hymns with the students and the person who did this was called Upādhyāya, i.e., teacher cum co-recitor. Upādhyāya seems to have remained a distinct category among the Brāhmaṇa. Two of their traits are described in Maṇimēkalai, namely āraṇa uvatti,19 i.e., a teacher of the Vedas, and antaṇar uvātti,20 i.e., a teacher of Brāhmaṇas. They seem to zealously observe the moral injunctions of the Dharmaśāstra.The Vaidika system laid great emphasis on the presence of the wedded wife in all rites. Sacrificial rituals, required the invariable presence of the wife, patni. This was so important that the patni was considered the prime necessity for a man to attain mokṣa. Dharmadatta a merchant was counselled by a Brāhmaṇa to marry a woman otherwise any number of sacred gifts would not give him spiritual merit. Women are not entitled to freedom. They are under protection. As a virgin, as a married woman, as a widow woman remains under protection. She remains away from the sight of others and worships no god other than her husband, says Cittirāpati the mother of Mādavi. She contrasts this, the life of a chaste woman with that of a courtesan.21 The dancers (courtesans) display their bodily beauty, music and dance on the public stage. They attract the attention of those who pass by, further inciting them with speeches, enjoy their company, and later move on to others in search of more wealth. Cittirāpati also mentioned that if a courtesan refuses to pursue the life of a prostitute, the king is expected to punish her. The Arthaśāstra holds that a courtesan who does not approach a man at the command of the king and refuses to cohabit with him, should be punished.22
The text distinguishes family women and courtesans by the protection afforded by society. Courtesans are not bound by the restrictions of the caste system, varunak-kāppiḷal. They amassed wealth by selling their body, poruḷ vilai āṭṭi. Married women were called patni.
The nature of the death of women is divided into three categories. Both types of death viz: 1) instantaneous death on hearing of the demise of her husband, and 2) the woman entering the funeral pyre of her husband are called karpuk kaṭan. The death of a woman after observing severe penance following the death of her husband is called tavam mēr koḷḷal. The third category is the death of a woman within a stipulated period of her husband's death. According to the Dharmaśāstras this varies for different castes; as for example, ten days for Brāhmaṇa, twelve days for the Kṣatriyas and fifteen days in the case of Vaiśyas. If a women dies within this stipulated period she is not considered a widow but a Sumaṅkali. The Maṇimēkalai calls this a karpuk kaṭan.23 Kaṇṇaki ascended to heaven on the 14th day of her husband's death and so she is called a patni.24
Cālini, the wife of Āraṇav uvātti from Vārānaci committed adultery on becoming of a Brāhmaṇa woman. She therefore lost her right to maintenance and protection and to expiate the sin went on a pilgrimage to Kanyākumari. Āputtiran was her son. The lady feared retribution for her immoral act and her visit to Kanyākumari was made to escape from the punishment.25 In a later part of the text the penalty for this immoral act is mentioned as capital punishment. The Smṛtis prescribe different types of punishment for adultery, depending upon the circumstances. It ranges from the highest capital punishment to a fine of few paṇas.
The Brāhmaṇa settlement was called grāma.26 In the lay out of township the Brāhmaṇa lived in separate quarters.27 The village or town settlement was deified as a devatā. Campāpati is such a deification. The Vedic texts indicate that the nagara devata or the grāma devatā would protect the inhabitants or the settlements from calamities and answer their prayers.28 Gautami the Brāhmaṇa lady who lost her son at the cemetry at Pumpukar, also called Campāpati, appealed to the Goddess Campāpati to restore the life of her son. She claimed that the texts of the Vedic Brāhmaṇas asserted that the gods would protect and answer the prayers of the inhabitants.29
Gautami's husband was called Pārppān and her son Piṇanku nūl mārpan, i.e., one wore sacred thread on his breast. The Nagara devatā is said to protect the banks of rivers, public places, trees, residences and temples.30
The Vaidika Brāhmaṇa regulary performed Vedic sacrifices. The smoke emanating from the Vedic sacrificial fire would fertilise the clouds and bring rains, and consequently prosperity to the people; a faith often mentioned in Vedic texts.31 That the Brāhmaṇa performed sacrifices in which animals were killed is illustrated by the story of Āputtiran. The story relates how Āputtiran freed a cow that was to be slaughtered for sacrifice in a Brāhmaṇa's house and tells of the subsequent quarrel between the Brāhmaṇas and the boy.
The Vaidika system is called vaidika mārga or marai murai. Vetaviyātan (Vedavyāsa), Kirutakōṭi (Kṛtakoṭi), Caimini (Jaimini), 32 Kecakampalan and Kāṇātan (Kāṇāta) are said to be the expounders of the Vaidika logical systems.33 The different aspects of vaidika mārga are described in detail in the chapter on camaya kaṇakkar tantirum kēṭṭa kātai,34 “the Episode of listening to different Philosophers.”35
It is needless to go into all the details. We may note only one or two important points. It is clear that there were several sub-sects among the Vaidikas as seen from the term vaidika markkattu alavai vāti,36 “those who argue on the valid sources of cognition following the Vedic tradition”.
One of the sub-sects was called vētiyan, the follower of Veda. This school laid stress on the six auxiliary sciences of Kalpam, Cantam, Niruttam, Cotiṭam, Cīkkai and Vyakaraṇam called the Ṣaḍaṅgas. According to this school Kalpam was considered the hand, Candam the leg, Cotiṭam the eye, Niruttam the ears, Cīkkai the nose and Vyakaraṇam the face of the Veda37. They are indicative of the role these auxiliary texts play in the study of the Vedas. This school also believed that the Vedas were not created by any agency were self manifest. They neither have a beginning nor ādi antam illai.38 The Vedic texts were also believed to be injunctions to be strictly obeyed; vetiyan uraiyum vitiyum keṭṭu.39, “having listened to the injunctions of the Vedic follower”.
Similarly detailing the Śaiva school, the Maṇimēkalai gives the important concepts of Śaivas. According to this school Īśa is the supreme god. The system speaks of the eightfold nature of the God consisting of the five elements, pañca bhūtas, the Sun, the Moon and the Yajamāna which constitute the eight entities. What was developed as sarira sariri bhāva by the Viśiṣṭādvaita school of Rāmanuja, was originally the main plank of Śaivism. It speaks of body and soul, uyir and yākkai. By using the word kaṭṭi Cāttanār indicates the Śaiva concept of bandha, bondage. The Lord according to this school has the nature of kāla. He is the creator and destroyer. By destroying he removes the sufferings of human beings. Lord Śiva is considered without a second, Mahādeva.
Cāttanār uses the most significant terms of each school to denote their tenets. For example the Vaidikas hold that the Vedas are of absolute and unquestionable authority and should be obeyed strictly. This is called a vidhi. Cāttanār uses the same word vidhi, vētiyan vitiyum keṭṭu.40 Similarly he uses the word paracu with reference to Śaivism.41Paracu means little axe, maḻu, in Tamil. Śiva is paracu pāṇiyan, one who wields paraśu. This is the most distinguishing weapon of the Lord. It is with this weapon Śiva cuts as under the bondage of human beings. Paracu also means “to tell”. By using the term paracu nin deyvam42 Cāttanār intends a double meaning. The first meaning for the phrase nin teyvam means “tell me who is your God”. The second meaning is paracu nin teyvam “your God is Paraśu (Śiva)”. Cāttanār's treatment of different schools of philosophy is full of such significant terms exclusive to the respective schools.
Disposal of the Dead
Several customs relating to the disposal of the dead are mentioned in the text. In the cemetery sculptural shrines were erected and there were clear indications on them that they were meant for different castes.43 Such shrines of bricks were built for saints, kings and women who committed sati.44 The cemeteries were laid out along with the original lay out of the village settlements.45 The cemetery had an enclosing wall and was approached through four entrances. One of the entrances had a huge stucco figure of a bhūta with a śūla and pāśa in its hands. Inside the cemetery was a temple dedicated to Cāmuṇḍā. The temple had an open yard and a bali pīṭha, i.e., sacrificial altar in front, and was surrounded by tall trees. Severed heads of those who had performed heroic self sacrifice hung on the trees. The description of the cemetery closely resembles the temple of Kāli described in Bharaṇi literature like the Kaliṅkgattup-paraṇi or Takka-yāga-paraṇi. Inside the cemetery posts had been erected which were believed to be inhabited by spirits to whom bali was offered.46 Clearly all these were the faiths of the followers of vaidika mārga.
There were some who observed smasāna vrata called “cuṭalai nōṉpu” as part of which they offered cooked food in front of the vaṉṉi trees. Different ways of disposing of the dead are mentioned in the text. There are those who cremated the body, exposed the dead, buried them or laid them in an urn, etc.,
When a king died, not in warfare, but due to other causes like old age, it was customary to place his body on a bier of darbha grass and symbolically cut his body with a sword. The Brāhmaṇas used to recite a Vedic mantra saying “you the dead king, you go now to the abode of kings who died heroically at the battle front”. This was a Vaidika system which was prevelant in Tamiḻakam from the Cankam age. Puram 93 refers to this custom. Informing the queen of the death of Prince Udayakumaran, an old lady tells her that it was customary to lay the dead body of the ruler on a grass and cut it with a sword reciting the mantra:
taruppaiyil kiḍatti vālir polntu
ceruppukal mannar celvaḻi celkena47
“Placing (your dead body) on a spread of sacred grass, we now pierce your body with a sword [symbolically] so that (you) may reach heaven attained by kings who met with heroic death.”
Bali offering
Two of the customs mentioned deserve notice. The heroic warriors offered Bali in the yard of the bhūta praying for the victory of the ruling monarch. There were mantira mākkal (māntrikas) who offered Bali to the spirits pēy makal to cure girls, children, pregnant women and those suffering from deep wounds. Such Balis were thrown into the air with the cry addressed to the spirits to come and partake of the Bali offerings. Similar offerings are made even to this day mainly to the spirits during the grama śānti in the dead of the nights. The Maṇimēkalai makes specific mention of such offerings.48
The offering of Bali occupies an important place in Hindu domestic and temple rituals. It is frequently mentioned in the Maṇimēkalai. The Bali ranged from simple offering of flower or cooked rice to extreme sacrifices such as severing one's own head and presenting it as a śiras puṣpa. Maṇimēkalai refers to such bali pīṭha as divine altars (kadavul pīṭikai). Such offerings are made at the beginning of festivals and they are called śānti. Śānti offerings are made for the prosperity of the village and were known as grāma śāntiM. The dvipaśānti, tivaka śānti mentioned at the beginning of the text is such a vastu śānti. It was made for the well being of the king, for plentiful rains and the prosperity of the country. During such śānti, festivals were conducted in all the temples from the temple of Śiva to that of the Bhūta Kṣetrapāla (pati vāḻ catukattu Būtam). A point of interest is that according to the Maṇimēkalai such festivals were performed by the Vaidika brāhmaṇas, arari antanar?.49
There seems to be a suggestion thrown up by the text that the Tirukkuraḷ mentioned by Vaḷḷuvar as poyyil pulavan, was related to the Vaidika system. In the legend narrated to the King, the father of Udayakumaran, the mahābhūta appears before Māruti, a Brahmaṇa lady, and tells her that she has been too fond of music, dance and festivals. As a result she lost her power of bringing down the rains, although she did not lose her chastity. In this context the Kuraḷ of Vaḷḷuvar is quoted verbatim (vāḻkkaittuṇai nalam, 5). The whole context is set against the vaidika background and this needs to be noted.
1Cittalai Cāttanār. Maṇimēkalai. pattipāciriyar: u ve caminata aiyar. ēḻām patippu. Chennai: nulnilaiyam 1981, 13: 69. [Quoted as Manimekalai].
2Maṇimēkalai, 13: 94.
3Ibid., 13: 93.
4Ibid., 13: 79.
5Ibid., 6: 169.
6Ibid., 13: 59.
7Ibid., 27: 103,
8Ibid., 13: 25.
9Ibid., 13: 59.
10Ibid., 16: 132.
11Ibid., 5: 43, 5: 133, 11: 84, 13: 25, etc.
12Ibid., 13: 15.
13Ibid., 13: 25.
14Ibid., 5: 43.
15Ibid., 13: 78.
16Ibid., 3: 30.
17Ibid., 13:3.
18Ibid., 13: 63-65.
19Ibid., 13: 79.
20Ibid., 13: 46.
21Ibid., 18: 98-111.
22The Kauṭiliya's Arthasastra, Pt. 2, An English Translation with Critical and Explanatory Notes by RP Kangle (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1986), Ch. 2, 27, 19.
